INTRODUCTION
The CropLife Australia Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance (ECIR) has drafted insect resistance management strategies in conjunction with growers, researchers and agronomists to minimise the development of insect resistance to insecticides. These strategies provide growers with guidelines for insecticide use (and other methods) for sustainable insect control.
PRINCIPLES OF RESISTANCE MANAGEMENT
Insecticide or acaricide resistance management strategies seek to minimise the selection for resistance to any one type of insecticide or acaricide. This requires an understanding of insecticides as they are grouped according to similarity of Mode of Action (MoA) in controlling insects and mites.
In practice, sequences or rotations of compounds from different MoA groups providean effective approach to resistance management. These MoA groups are shown in the Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides Table.
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES USE ALTERNATIONS OR SEQUENCES OF DIFFERENT MODES OF ACTION
The objective of Insecticide Resistance Management is to prevent or delay resistance developing to insecticides, or to help regain susceptibility in insect pest populations in which resistance has already arisen. IRM is important in maintaining the efficacy of valuable insecticides. It is usually easier to prevent resistance occurring than it is to reactively regain susceptibility.
Insecticide applications are often arranged into MoA spray windows or blocks that are defined by the stage of crop development and the biology of the pest(s) of concern. Local expert advice should always be followed with regard to spray windows and timings. Several sprays of a compound may be possible within each spray window but it is generally essential to ensure that successive generations of the pest are not treated with compounds from the same MoA group.
WHAT IS RESISTANCE?
Resistance to insecticides and acaricides may be defined as ‘a heritable change in the sensitivity of a pest population that is reflected in the repeated failure of a product to achieve the expected level of control when used according to the label recommendation for that pest species’.
Resistance arises through the over use or misuse of an insecticide or acaricide against a pest species and results in the selection of resistant forms of the pest and the consequent evolution of populations that are resistant to that insecticide or acaricide.
RESISTANCE MECHANISMS
There are a number of ways insects can become resistant to insecticidal crop protection products.
METABOLIC RESISTANCE
Resistant insects may detoxify or destroy the toxin faster than susceptible insects, or quickly rid their bodies of the toxic molecules. Metabolic resistance is the most common mechanism and often presents the greatest challenge. Insects use their internal enzyme systems to break down insecticides. Resistant strains may possess higher levels or more efficient forms of these enzymes. In addition to being more efficient, these enzyme systems also may have a broad spectrum of activity (i.e., they can degrade many different insecticides).
TARGET-SITE RESISTANCE
The target site where the insecticide acts in the insect may be genetically modified to prevent the insecticide binding or interacting at its site of action thereby reducing or eliminating the pesticidal effect of the insecticide.
PENETRATION RESISTANCE
Resistant insects may absorb the toxin more slowly than susceptible insects. Penetration resistance occurs when the insect’s outer cuticle develops barriers which can slow absorption of the chemicals into their bodies. This can protect insects from a wide range of insecticides. Penetration resistance is frequently present along with other forms of resistance, and reduced penetration intensifies the effects of those other mechanisms.
BEHAVIOURAL RESISTANCE
Resistant insects may detect or recognize a danger and avoid the toxin. This mechanism of resistance has been reported for several classes of insecticides, including organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids. Insects may simply stop feeding if they come across certain insecticides, or leave the area where spraying occurred (for instance, they may move to the underside of a sprayed leaf, move deeper in the crop canopy or fly away from the target area).
MODE OF ACTION, TARGET-SITE RESISTANCE AND CROSS-RESISTANCE
In the majority of cases, not only does resistance render the selecting insecticide ineffective but it often confers cross-resistance to other chemically related compounds. Compounds within a specific chemical group usually share a common target site within the pest, and thus share a common Mode of Action (MoA). It is common for resistance to develop that is based on a genetic modification of this target site. When this happens the compound loses its pesticidal efficacy. Because all compounds within the chemical sub-group share a common MoA, there is a high risk that the resistance will automatically confer cross-resistance to all the compounds in the same sub-group. It is this concept of cross-resistance within chemically related insecticides or acaricides that is the basis of the Mode of Action classification.
ALTERNATION OF CHEMISTRY
Constant use of insecticides from one chemical grouping (MoA) will increase the risk of rapid build-up of resistance to that chemical group. Alternate use of chemical groups with different MoAs will slow down the process of selection for resistance.
USE OF CULTURAL PRACTICES
Incorporation of cultural techniques for controlling an insect pest will reduce selection pressure from the insecticides. Any resistance management strategies should incorporate all available methods of control for the insect pest concerned.
UNDERSTANDING OF THE INSECT/MITE LIFE CYCLE
A good understanding of the life cycle of the pest is essential so that control methods can be effectively targeted. An insecticide or acaricide should always be targeted at the pest growth stage that is most susceptible for that insecticide or acaricide.
APPLICATION
Label Recommendations
Insecticide labels have been carefully developed to ensure the most effective control of the pest. The label should at all times be carefully read and adhered to.
Rates
Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used to ensure the most effective control of the pest.
Coverage
The majority of insecticides require good coverage of the target area to ensure the best possible chance of contact and subsequent control of the pest.
RESISTANCE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY DESIGN
Crop/Pest or Regional Strategies
The strategies below are provided on a CROP by PEST basis (eg. Tomato – Heliothis). However, in horticultural and agricultural areas often a range of crops are grown that are attacked by a range of pests.
In many cases, a specific MoA insecticide can be used across this range of crops to control multiple pests that have the ability to move from crop to crop. There is interaction between intensive horticulture and broadacre farming, as with Diamondback Moth (DBM) in Brassica vegetables and resistance strategies that could be compromised by widespread use of insecticides for DBM control in canola.
Also, the pest complex for a specific crop will vary within production regions, especially between Northern and Southern Australia.
For this reason, CROP by PEST strategies can be flawed and further Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) advice for specific pests should always be sought on a local basis.
An alternative to the CROP by PEST strategy is that of “Regional strategies” such as those for Cotton, Brassicas and the Southern NSW and Northern Victorian IRM strategy for grain and annual horticultural crops”.
These regional or specific crop strategies are located on the CropLife Australia website.
The overall Resistance Management Strategy of avoiding overuse of individual Modes of Action insecticides should be followed, not just on a specific crop and pest but on a broad perspective of crops and pest complex.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Further information on Insecticide Resistance, Management Strategies and Insecticide Mode of Action can be found on the International IRAC (Insecticide Resistance Action Committee) website www.irac-online.org.
Crop(s): Bananas
Insect(s): Banana weevil borer (Cosmopolites sordidus) and Rust Thrips (Chaetanaphothrips signipennis)
Guidelines:
- Use only clean planting material.
- If re-planting into an old banana block, allow at least 6 months fallow after old banana material has rotted down.
- Remove weeds and trash around banana stools to allow maximum effectiveness of insecticides and to reduce sheltering sites for weevils. Application of insecticide to trash may lead to reduced control of banana weevil borer.
- Cut up fallen and harvested pseudostems to reduce weevil breeding sites.
- Monitor regularly for banana weevil borer activity by trapping (when adult weevils are active) or conduct corm damage ratings.
- Only use insecticides when populations reach or exceed accepted threshold levels. Refer to local Department of Agriculture guidelines.
- Only use insecticides at the registered rate of application and apply at times when the particular product will have the maximum impact, i.e. use contact insecticides only when weevil borer adults are active.
- Use insecticides only in the years indicated in the following diagrams.
- Consider the impact of the use of other pesticides for other insects or nematodes on banana weevil borers.
- For rust thrips control, a combination of control methods such as butt/band sprays, stem injection or spray and bunch sprays may be required.
The following two diagrams are alternative Resistance Management Strategies depending on which product(s) are chosen for banana weevil borer and rust thrips control.
STRATEGY A
Where products
other than
controlled release formulations of imidacloprid are being used to control insects in bananas.
*Refer: CropLife Australia Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
- Products registered for banana weevil borer control.
- Product registered for rust thrips control as bunch sprays only.
- Products registered for banana weevil borer and rust thrips control.
Guidelines:
- The resistance management strategy may start at any point in the product group rotation and planting may occur in any year of the strategy.
- The product(s) used in any one year should not be followed by product(s) from the same insecticide group in the following year.
- Only products from the YES insecticide groups shown in the diagram above should be applied for banana weevil borer control and/or rust thrips control in the same year.
- If products from Group 1A or 1B (oxamyl, cadusafos or terbufos) are being used for nematode control in a block of bananas, then products from these groups should not be used for banana weevil borer control in the following year.
- Where there is evidence of banana weevil borer or rust thrips resistance to a product or group of products, these should not be used again for banana weevil borer or rust thrips control until there has been use of products from other Insecticide Mode of Action groups for a period of at least 2 years.
STRATEGY B
Where products including controlled release formulations of imidacloprid are being used to control insects in bananas.
*Refer: CropLife Australia Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
- Products registered for banana weevil borer control.
- Product registered for rust thrips control only as bunch sprays.
- Products registered for banana weevil borer and rust thrips control or suppression.
Guidelines:
- The resistance management strategy may start at year 1 or year 4 in the product group rotation.
- Controlled release imidacloprid provides 3 years control of banana weevil borer with one application at planting, so after the 3rd year, insecticide products from other Mode of Action groups are to be used in rotation for at least 3 years for banana weevil borer and rust thrips control in a given block of bananas.
- Alternative product groups are provided in these 3 years for control of rust thrips as soil or stem treatments or bunch sprays.
- Only products from the YES insecticide groups shown in the diagram above should be applied for banana weevil borer control and/or rust thrips control in the same year.
- If products from Group 1A or 1B (oxamyl, cadusafos or terbufos) are being used for nematode control in a block of bananas, then products from these groups should not be used for banana weevil borer control in the following year.
- Where there is evidence of banana weevil borer or rust thrips resistance to a product or group of products, these should not be used again for banana weevil borer control until there has been use of products from other Insecticide Mode of Action groups for a period of at least 2 years.
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s): Brassica, brassica leafy vegetables
Insect(s): Diamondback Moth, Cabbage moth (Plutella xyostella).
Guidelines:
- To help prevent the development of resistance to any one specific active ingredient (see table below), observe the following instructions:
- Use in accordance with the current IRMS for your region. For growers in the Lockyer Valley region, please refer to the Lockyer Valley Diamondback Moth Insecticide Resistance Management Strategy. For growers in Western Australia, please refer to the Western Australian Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development two-window strategy.
- Apply a specific active ingredient using a “window” approach to avoid exposure of consecutive insect pest generations to the same mode of action. Multiple successive applications of a specific active ingredient are acceptable if they are used to treat a single pest generation.
- Following a “window” of a specific mode of action product, rotate to a “window” of applications of effective insecticides with a different mode of action.
- The total exposure period of any one mode of action “active window” applied throughout the crop cycle (from seedling to harvest) should not exceed 50% of the crop cycle.
- Incorporate IPM techniques into the overall pest management program and
- Monitor insect populations for loss of field efficacy.
- Always read and follow product labels and use the full recommended label rates of application. Some products place a limit on the number of times they can be applied per crop (see table below) and when they can be applied.
- Monitor crops regularly and only apply insecticide when the pest threshold is reached.
- When an insecticide with foliar activity on diamondback moth has been used as a seed treatment or drench application in nursery production (as determined by label claims(, rotate to an alternative mode of action insecticide for a period covering at least one generation of diamondback moth. This may require a minimum of 2 applications of alternate mode of action insecticides.
- Ensure spray rig is properly calibrated and achieving good coverage with appropriate sized spray droplets.
- Time the application to the most susceptible life stage of the target pest.
- To encourage beneficial insects, use Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) sprays and avoid broad spectrum insecticides where possible, particularly early to mid-crop cycle.
- Be cautious of using insecticide tank-mixes where both active ingredients control DBM as this strategy is generally not considered best practice for resistance management. Refer to the IRAC International Insecticide Mixture Statement for more information on this subject.
- DO NOT re-treat a spray failure with a product from the same chemical group.
- Practice good crop hygiene to reduce DBM pressure – plant clean seedlings and incorporate crop residue as soon as practical after harvest.
|
Group*
|
Active ingredient
|
Number applications permitted per crop per season from product label
|
| 1A |
methomyl, thiodicarb |
Not specified |
| 2B |
fipronil |
4 per year within 8-week period |
| 3A |
synthetic pyrethroids (various) |
Not specified |
| 5 |
spinetoram |
4 |
| 6 |
emamectin benzoate |
4 per any one crop |
| 11A |
Bacillus thuringiensis
|
not specified |
| 13 |
chlorfenapyr |
2 but 4 in brussels sprouts |
| 22A |
indoxacarb |
4 |
| 22A + 15 |
indoxacarb + novaluron |
3 (included as application of 22A) |
| 23 |
spirotetramat |
2 but 3 in brassica leafy vegetables |
| 28 |
chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide |
3 including mixtures of chlorantraniliprole and thiamethoxam |
| UN |
clitoria ternatea extract |
not specified |
*Refer: CropLife Australia
Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s): Canola, Forage brassica
Insect(s): Diamondback moth, Cabbage moth (Plutella xylostella)
For information refer to the IPM Guidelines: https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/resistance-management-strategies/
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s): Cotton
Insect(s): All Pests
For information refer to the current Cotton Pest Management Guide: https://www.cottoninfo.com.au/publications/cotton-pest-management-guide
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crops(s) Nursery e.g., vegetable seedlings, trees, ornamentals
Disease(s) Various
- Monitor regularly for insect activity. Where relevant consider the use of light, insect traps or other monitoring tools.
- Only use insecticides when insect populations reach accepted threshold levels.
- Always read and follow product labels and use the full recommended label rates of application. Some products place a limit on the number of times they can be applied per crop and when they can be applied.
- Ensure the spray equipment is properly calibrated and achieving good coverage with appropriately sized spray droplets.
- In the case of soil applied insecticides, apply only once prior to transplanting. Apply using sufficient water that does not result in any drop point from the soil medium containing the seedling or plant. If watering is required between applications and planting, it should be done sparingly, only as required. Avoid water to run-through from the cells, bags etc.
- When transplanting soil-treated seedlings or plants, ensure that the growing medium is fully transferred to the field with each seedling or plant.
- Rotate between registered insecticides that have different modes of action.
- Where possible avoid applying consecutive applications of insecticides that have the same mode of action within and between seasons or exceed the recommended maximum number of applications in a crop.
- Do not follow a seed, seedling or soil treatment with a foliar application from the same mode of action group.
- Time the foliar applications to the most susceptible life stage of the target pest.
- Do not re-treat a spray failure with a product from the same mode of action group.
- Avoid using insecticide tank-mixes where both active ingredients control the same insect pests as this strategy is generally not considered best practice for resistance management.
- Practice good crop hygiene to reduce insect pressure e.g., removing severely infested seedling trays, plants or host weeds.
- Nurseries supplying treated plants to commercial operations should clearly identify insecticides that have been applied, supply paperwork to the recipient accompanying the plant that indicates the rates and date. For treated seedlings the time of application should also be included, particularly if applied just prior to transplant in the field.
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- Refer to the CropLife Australia Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides.
- There is known cross-resistance between some chemical groups e.g., Groups 1A and 1B.
- Seek advice from the manufacturers or government advisory services to determine local resistance levels for particular mode of action groups.
- Do not exceed the maximum number of applications permitted on the insecticide label.
- When using insecticides to control other pests consider the chemical group in relation to contributing to the resistance development of other insect pets.
When using insecticides to control insect pests consider the effect on beneficial insects and the potential to flare insect populations.
Crop(s): Pasture/Winter Crops
Insect(s): Redlegged Earth Mite; RLEM (Halotydeus destructor)
Guidelines:
- Rotate insecticide groups.
- DO NOT apply consecutive sprays of products from any one insecticide group.
|
Crop stage
|
Group*
|
Chemical sub-group
|
Example chemical
|
| Seed treatment (or in-furrow) |
4A
1B
2B |
neonicotinoids or
organophosphates or
phenylpyrazoles |
imidacloprid
dimethoate
fipronil |
| Bare Earth (Pre-emergent) |
1B
3A |
organophosphates or
synthetic pyrethroids |
omethoate
bifenthrin |
| Early Season (Autumn when limited green growth) |
1B
3A12A |
organophosphates or
synthetic pyrethroids or mitochondrial ATP synthase inhibitors |
chlorpyrifos
alpha-cypermethrindiafenthiuron (Canola only) |
| Spring |
1B
3A
12A |
organophosphates or
synthetic pyrethroids
diafenthiuron |
omethoate
gamma-cyhalothrin
diafenthiuron |
* Refer: CropLife Australia Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
3. If both autumn and spring applications are needed, alternate between chemical groups.
Timing of Sprays
- Monitor Redlegged Earth Mite (RLEM) activity carefully and only treat if damage has reached threshold levels.
- Hatch timing tool can be used to determine season risk
- One well timed spray in Autumn or Spring will maximise effectiveness of treatment.
- Optimal timing of Spring sprays can be calculated using the TIMERITE tool.
Placement of Sprays
- Apply perimeter sprays where infestations are concentrated on the edge of fields.
- Use blanket sprays where appropriate. However, with pyrethroid products, recent research has shown that the risk of pyrethroid resistance can be minimised through the application of foliar pyrethroids in a 50 m strip with 10 m spacing.
Cultural Practices
- Heavy grazing or cutting for hay or cultivation will reduce mite numbers.
- Control alternative hosts such as Capeweed and Paterson’s curse.
- Develop damage thresholds.
- Rotate crops and pastures that are more tolerant to the pest.
- Encourage predator survival by judicious use of insecticides.
- For more details on resistance management for RLEM in grain crops and pastures, refer to: http://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/resistance-management-strategies/ and GRDC redlegged earth mite best management practices.
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s): Pome Fruit
Insect(s): Two Spotted Mite (Tetranychus urticae), European Red Mite (Panonychus ulmi)
Guidelines:
- Make no more than one application from each registered miticide group per season. Rotate registered miticides that have different mode of action (i.e. Group 6, Group 10A, Group 10B, Group 12B, Group 12C, Group 13, Group 20B, Group 20D, Group 21A and 25A).
- For miticides that have the same mode of action (e.g. Group 21A) do not use consecutive applications within and between seasons.
|
Group*
|
Chemical sub-group
|
Example chemical
|
| 6 |
Avermectins, milbemycins |
abamectin, milbemectin |
| 10A |
Clofentezine, hexythiazox |
clofentezine, hexythiazox |
| 10B |
Etoxazole |
etoxazole |
| 12B |
Organotin miticides |
fenbutatin oxide |
| 12C |
Propargite |
propargite |
| 13 |
Chlorfenapyr |
chlorfenapyr |
| 20B |
Acequinocyl |
acequinocyl |
| 20D |
Bifenazate |
bifenazate |
| 21A |
METI acaricides |
fenpyroximate, tebufenpyrad |
| 25A |
Cyflumetofen |
cyflumetofen |
* Refer: CropLife Australia Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
Notes:
- Miticides should be used as part of an Integrated Mite Control (IMC) program.
- Mite levels should be monitored and thresholds utilised before deciding to make miticide applications.
- Where practicable, predatory mites should be incorporated into an IMC program.
- When using insecticides/miticides to control other pests of pome fruit such as codling moth, lightbrown apple moth and woolly aphid, consider the chemical group and the potential impact it may have on resistance development of mite pests.
- When using insecticides/miticides to control other pests of pome fruit consider the effect on beneficial insects and the potential to flare mite population.
- For more information refer to the current NSW Orchard Plant Protection Guide.
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s):
Potato
Insect(s):
Potato tuber moth / Tomato leafminer (Phthorimaea operculella)
|
Group*
|
Chemical sub-group
|
Example chemical
|
| 1B |
Organophosphates |
acephate, azinphos-methyl, methamidophos, diazinon, dichlorvos |
| 1A |
Carbamates |
carbaryl, methomyl |
| 3A |
Pyrethroids |
permethrin |
| 5 |
Spinosyns |
spinosad, spinetoram |
| 28 |
Diamides |
chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide |
* Refer: CropLife Australia
Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
Guidelines:
- Monitor pest levels and do not spray unless pest thresholds are exceeded.
- Rotate insecticide groups and do not use two consecutive applications of products with the same Mode of Action.
- Integrate both chemical and non-chemical means of control as part of the overall control strategy. Examples are the use of predators/parasites and relevant cultural practices (crop hygiene, rotation of planted areas, and strategic time of planting).
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s): Sorghum, Maize, Summer and Winter Grain Legumes
Insect(s): Heliothis/Cotton bollworm/Native budworm (Helicoverpa spp.)
Guidelines:
- To help prevent the development of resistance to any one specific active ingredient (see table below), observe the following instructions:
- Use in accordance with the current IRMS for your region.
- Apply a specific active ingredient using a “window” approach to avoid exposure of consecutive insect pest generations to the same mode of action. Multiple successive applications of a specific active ingredient are acceptable if they are used to treat a single pest generation.
- Following a “window” of a specific mode of action product, rotate to a “window” of applications of effective insecticides with a different mode of action.
- The total exposure period of any one mode of action “active window” applied throughout the crop cycle (from seedling to harvest) should not exceed 50% of the crop cycle.
- Incorporate IPM techniques into the overall pest management program and
- Monitor insect populations for loss of field efficacy.
- Always read and follow product labels. Some products place a limit on the number of times they can be applied per crop (see table below) and when they can be applied.
- Monitor crops regularly and only apply insecticide when the pest threshold is reached.
- Ensure spray rig is properly calibrated and achieving good coverage with appropriate sized spray droplets.
- Time the application to the most susceptible life stage of the target pest.
- To encourage beneficial insects, use Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) or NPV sprays and avoid broad spectrum insecticides where possible, particularly early to mid-crop cycle.
- Be cautious of using insecticide tank-mixes where both active ingredients control Helicoverpa spp. as this strategy is generally not considered best practice for resistance management. Refer to document IRAC International Insecticide Mixture Statement for more information on this subject.
- DO NOT re-treat a spray failure with a product from the same chemical group.
- Practice effective pupae busting as soon as practicable after harvest.
|
Group*
|
Active ingredient
|
Number applications per crop per season¥
|
Crops¥
|
| 1A |
Methomyl (eg. Lannate® L), thiodicarb (eg. Larvin®) |
not specified |
All cereal grains, oilseed, pulses |
| 3A |
synthetic pyrethroids (various – eg. Bulldock®, Dominex® Duo, Karate® Zeon, Sumi-alpha® Flex, Trojan®) |
not specified |
All cereal grains, oilseed, pulses |
| 5 |
Spinetoram (Success® Neo) |
TBC |
All pulses |
| 6 |
emamectin benzoate (eg. Affirm®) |
2 |
All pulses |
| 11A |
Bacillus thuringiensis (eg. Dipel®, Xentari®) |
not specified |
All cereal grains, oilseed, pulses |
| 22A |
Indoxacarb (eg. Steward® EC) |
1 |
chickpea, faba bean, mung bean, soybean, azuki bean |
| 28 |
Chlorantraniliprole (Altacor®) |
Refer to label |
All pulses |
| Not categorised |
Nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV) – (eg. Gemstar®, Vivus® Max) |
no limit but avoid season long use of low rates |
All cereal grains, oilseed, pulses |
* Refer: CropLife Australia
Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
¥
Refer: Registered product label
Notes:
For more information refer to the IPM Guidelines H. armigera RMS for Australian grains: https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/resistance-management-strategies/#heli
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s):
Strawberries/ornamentals
Insect(s):
Two Spotted Mite (Tetranychus urticae)
Guidelines:
- Monitor mite activity and treat infestations before thresholds are reached, ie. spray earlier rather than later. Seek advice on local threshold levels.
- DO NOT apply sequential applications of products from any one chemical group.
- Preferably products with the same Mode of Action should not be used more than twice in a growing season
- Incorporate the use of predatory mites for the control of this pest wherever possible.
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s): Sweet Corn
Insect(s): Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera) aka Heliothis
Guidelines:
- The critical stage of infestation is during silking. Even low levels of heliothis infestation are unacceptable at the silking stage. Because sweet corn is less attractive to heliothis before flowering and it is picked soon after silking is completed, there is a relatively short period of protection required.
- Control of heliothis at the tasselling stage (occurs prior to silking stage) can be important in some regions as the tassel can act as a nursery for heliothis, which can then move onto the young developing cobs. Control of heliothis at this stage is not as difficult as at the silking stage
- Use of biological insecticides, Bt and Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV), in the early stages of crop development is encouraged.
- Monitor crops regularly, at least weekly during silking and do not spray unless pest thresholds are exceeded.
- Labels of new products place a limit on the number of applications. If further control is required on one planting, chemicals from different mode of action groups within the same window should be used.
- DO NOT retreat a spray failure with a product from the same chemical group.
- DO NOT use mixtures of insecticides for controlling heliothis.
- Cultivation after harvest to destroy pupae will greatly assist in managing heliothis.
- Seek local advice on pest incidence and on the risk of resistance developing from insecticide programs used to control heliothis in crops other than Sweet Corn.
- To help prevent the development of resistance to any one specific active ingredient (see table below), observe the following instructions:
|
Group*
|
Active ingredient
|
| 1A |
Methomyl, thiodicarb |
| 3A |
Synthetic pyrethroids (several) |
| 5 |
Spinetoram |
| 6 |
Emamectin benzoate |
| 28 |
Chlorantraniliprole |
*Refer: CropLife Australia Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s): Tomato
Insect(s): Heliothis/Tomato Budworm (Helicoverpa spp.)
Guidelines:
- Monitor pest levels and do not spray unless pest thresholds are reached.
- DO NOT apply products outside their window of application for that chemical group.
- Use an integrated pest control approach where both chemical and non-chemical measures are adopted as part of the overall strategy. Examples are the use of predators/parasites and relevant cultural practices (crop hygiene, rotation of planted areas, and strategic time of planting).
- Seek local advice on pest incidence and the risk of resistance development from insecticide programs used to control heliothis in other crops or to control other pests
- When using insecticides/miticides to control other pests on tomato, consider the chemical group in relation to contributing to resistance development of heliothis.
- Avoid using insecticides from the same chemical group against Helicoverpa spp. or other pests, as this will increase the selection pressure.
- DO NOT re-spray a crop in the same season where a failure (which is known or unknown) has occurred using the same insecticide or other active ingredients from the same chemical group.
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop: Various
Insect(s): Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda)
List of active constituents approved for use under permits by the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) as of May 2020:**
|
Group*
|
Chemical subgroup
|
Active ingredient
|
| 1A |
Carbamates |
Methomyl (eg. Lannate® L) |
| 3A |
Pyrethroids |
Gamma-cyhalothrin (Trojan®), alpha-cypermethrin (eg. Dominex® Duo) |
| 5 |
Spinosyns |
Spinetoram (Success® Neo) |
| 6 |
Avermectins |
Emamectin benzoate (eg. Affirm®, Proclaim®Opti) |
| 15 |
Benzoylureas |
Diflubenzuron (Dimilin®) (nursery stock only) |
| 22A |
Oxadiazines |
Indoxacarb (eg. Steward® EC, Avatar® eVo) |
| 28 |
Diamides |
Chlorantraniliprole (Vantacor®, Coragen®), flubendiamide (Belt®). |
| 31 |
Nucleopolyhedroviruses
(NPVs) |
Spodoptera frugiperda multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (SfMNPV) (Fawligen®, Spodovir® plus) |
* Refer: CropLife Australia Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
** Refer to the APVMA’s PubCris website (https://portal.apvma.gov.au/permits) to ensure permit is still active
Guidelines:
- An Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach should be adopted in the production system to help manage this pest, with focus on cultural methods and the preservation of beneficial arthropods (insects and spiders).This includes regular crop monitoring (at least 2 times per week) to determine incidence x crop damage and the impact of beneficial arthropods.Consideration should also be given to the impact of prevailing weather conditions on the rate of pest development in the field.
- Avoid sequential plantings of preferred crops, e.g. corn, sorghum, sugarcane, as this will increase local populations of fall armyworm.
- Management of crop residues/volunteer plants before planting and after harvest also helps reduce local populations of fall armyworm.
- Where possible, avoid the use of broad spectrum foliar applied insecticides in the production system for both larvae and moth control. If broad-spectrum insecticides are to be used, apply at timings when preservation of beneficial species is less likely to be important – i.e. at end of growing season
- Consider controlling moths using light or attractant traps and encourage micro-bat habitat (natural or artificial roosting sites) adjacent to production areas.
- In situations where insecticides are required, consider beneficial arthropods when making spray decisions.
- When applying insecticides to this pest, key considerations should be given to:
- Apply insecticides only when needed based on economic thresholds;
- Target early instar stages (hatching larvae) of the pest before they become entrenched in the crop e.g. lower whorl of maize, sweet corn or grain sorghum;
- Use a medium spray quality to ensure sufficient droplets cover the spray target to ensure the larvae ingest a lethal dose of insecticide;
- Use a well calibrated, functioning boom spray with appropriate water rate for the target crop to ensure optimum spray coverage;
- Use the recommended insecticide rates as stipulated on the relevant APVMA Emergency Use Permit;
- Use a recommended adjuvant if stipulated on the relevant APVMA Emergency Use Permit; and
- Inspect the performance of the insecticide 3-4 days after application. Always document the effectiveness of each insecticide application and never re-spray a failure with an insecticide with the same mode of action. Inform your local reseller or agronomist of any spray failures. Internationally, known resistance has occurred to the following MoA groups: Carbamates (Group 1A); Organophosphates (Group 1B); Pyrethroids (Group 3); Bacillus thuringiensis and Cry1F protein (Group 11A).
- When using selected insecticides in-crop targeting fall armyworm, the following resistance management strategy guidelines should be implemented:
- If the label allows and it is required for sustained pest management, use two sequential applications of any one Mode of Action (MOA) insecticide to span a single generation of fall armyworm (~20 – 30 days) and then rotate to a different MOA insecticide;
- Do not treat successive generations with products of the same MOA
- The total exposure period of any one MOA insecticide applied throughout the crop cycle (from seedling to harvest) should not exceed 50% of the crop cycle;
- Abide by the individual label recommendation for maximum number of allowable applications per crop per season;
- Abide by individual label recommendation for the minimum reapplication interval and always use the full recommended label rates;
- Where possible, an Area Wide Management strategy should be adopted where the same MOA insecticides are used by all growers in the same time period; and
- As the industry learns more about how to manage this pest, this Strategy may be updated and regional-specific strategies may be developed. Check the CropLife Resistance Management website to ensure you are following the most up to date fall armyworm strategy.
- Useful fall armyworm reference documents are available at:
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
1. To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
a. Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
b. Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
c. Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s):
Various
Insect(s):
Cotton/Melon Aphid (Aphis gossypii) and Green Peach Aphid (Myzus persicae)
Guidelines:
- Rotate between registered insecticides that have different modes of action (eg. Groups 1, 4, 9, 12A (cotton crop only), 23 , 28 and 29).
- Do not apply consecutive applications of insecticides that have the same mode of action within and between seasons or exceed the recommended maximum number of applications in a crop.
- Do not follow a seed/seedling/soil treatment with a foliar application from the same Group.
- The Modes of Action (groups) and registered insecticides for control of cotton/melon aphid and/or green peach aphid are listed below:
|
Group*
|
Chemical sub-group
|
Example chemical
|
| 1A |
Carbamates |
pirimicarb |
| 1B |
Organophosphates |
methamidophos |
| 4A |
Neonicotinoid |
imidacloprid |
| 4C |
Sulfoximines |
sulfoxaflor |
| 9B |
Pymetrozine |
pymetrozine |
| 9D |
Pyropenes |
afidopyropen |
| 12A |
Diafenthiuron |
diafenthiuron |
| 23 |
Spirotetramat |
spirotetramat |
| 28 |
Diamide |
cyantraniliprole |
| 29 |
Flonicamid |
flonicamid |
* Refer: CropLife Australia
Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
Notes:
1. There is known cross-resistance between Groups 1A and 1B. Rotate between Group 1 and Group 4, 9B, 9D, 12A, 23, 28 and 29.
2. Consecutive applications of a Group 4A and Group 4C product may be made only if no other effective option is available – either because
a) no other group is registered in the crop or
b) the target pest is resistant to the other Groups.
3. Seek advice from the manufacturers and/or government advisory services to determine local resistance levels for particular mode of action Groups
4. Do not exceed the maximum number of applications permitted on the insecticide label.
5. When using insecticides/miticides to control other pests, consider the chemical group in relation to contributing to resistance development of Cotton/Melon Aphid and Green Peach Aphid.
6. When using insecticides/aphicides to control other pests consider the effect on beneficial insects and the potential to flare aphid populations.
7. For more information about insecticide resistance in the green peach aphid refer to http://cesaraustralia.com/latest-news/all/insecticide-resistance-in-the-green-peach-aphid.
8. For more detail on resistance management of aphids in cotton refer to the current Cotton Pest Management Guide or for more detail on resistance management for Green Peach Aphid in grain refer to https://ipmguidelinesforgrains.com.au/ipm-information/resistance-management-strategies/ or https://grdc.com.au/resources-and-publications/all-publications/factsheets/2015/07/grdc-fs-greenpeachaphid.
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s): Various
Insect(s): Silverleaf Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)
Guidelines:
- Monitor pest numbers and apply control measures before adult populations reach high levels.
- Select registered insecticide control measures according to the primary growth stage of the pest, the infestation level and the age and type of crop.
- In cotton, spray decisions should be based on the Silverleaf Whitefly threshold matrix. Refer to the current Cotton Pest Management Guide for further details
- Where possible, utilise selective insecticides during the early stages of crop development to minimise the impact on beneficial insects.
- Rotate between registered insecticides that have different modes of action (eg. Group 1, Group 3, Group 4, Group 7, Group 12, Group 23, Group 28 and Group 29).
- DO NOT apply more than two consecutive applications of insecticides that have the same Mode of Action within and between seasons.
- The Modes of Action (groups) and registered insecticides for control of Silverleaf Whitefly are listed below.
|
Group*
|
Chemical sub-group
|
Example chemical
|
| 1B |
Organophosphate |
acephate |
| 3A |
Synthetic pyrethroids |
bifenthrin |
| 4A |
Neonicotinoids |
acetamiprid, dinotefuran, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam |
| 4D |
Butenolides |
flupyradifurone |
| 7C |
Pyriproxyfen |
pyriproxyfen |
| 12A |
Diafenthiuron |
diafenthiuron |
| 16 |
Buprofezin |
buprofezin |
| 23 |
Spirotetramat |
spirotetramat |
| – |
Petroleum oil |
petroleum oil |
| 28 |
Diamides |
Cyantraniliprole |
| 29 |
Flonicamid |
flonicamid |
*Refer: CropLife Australia
Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
8. Seek advice from the manufacturers and/or government advisory services to determine local resistance levels for particular Mode of Action Groups.
9. DO NOT exceed the maximum number of applications permitted on the insecticide label.
10. When using insecticides to control other pests, consider the chemical group in relation to contributing to resistance development of Silverleaf Whitefly.
11. When using insecticides to control other pests consider the effect on beneficial insects and the potential to flare Silverleaf Whitefly populations.
NOTE:
Not all chemical groups listed have registered products available in all crops affected by Silverleaf Whitefly. Only use products registered for use in crop to be treated.
Cultural Practices:
- In vegetable crops, ensure seedlings are free of pests prior to transplanting. Inspect transplants carefully upon arrival for whitefly eggs, nymphs and adults.
- Control alternate weed hosts of Silverleaf Whitefly 2-3 weeks before planting to reduce early population levels.
- Clean-up crop residues:
- Plough in crops within 2-3 days of application to kill all remaining nymphs on crop foliage to reduce pest migration into new plantings.
- Where moderate population levels remain after harvest, apply a registered insecticide or oil treatment effective against adults.
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crop(s):
Various
Insect(s): Western Flower Thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis)
For information refer to the NSW Department of Primary Industries website: http://archive.dpi.nsw.gov.au/content/agriculture/horticulture/pests,-diseases-and-disorders-in-horticultural-crops/wft-resistance
Notes regarding the application of insecticides:
- To ensure the most effective control of the pest:
- Product labels should at all times be carefully read and adhered to;
- Full recommended rates of registered insecticides should always be used; and
- Ensure good coverage of the target area to maximise contact.
Crops(s) Wide
host range of plant species including onion, potato, brassica, beet, spinach, peas, beans and cut flowers
Disease(s) Serpentine leafminer (Liriomyza huidobrensis)
- The Serpentine Leafminer is a highly polyphagous pest of around 50 different plant families including many crops and weeds. Problems with Liriomyza typically result from the destruction of their parasitoids by excessive use of non-selective insecticides. Therefore, an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach should be adopted with focus on the preservation of beneficial arthropods and monitoring of pest populations, including:
- Monitoring via regular walk round of crops to determine presence of leafminers, including potential pest reservoirs in surrounding crops and weeds.
- Focus on areas exposed to prevailing winds and transport routes or unloading areas.
- Liriomyza leafminers are vulnerable to a wide range of generalist parasitoid and predator natural enemies, even when introduced into non-endemic regions, thus broad-spectrum products such as Organophosphates, Pyrethroids and Neonicotinoids should be avoided where possible, or used at times to minimize impact on natural enemy population, such as the end of a growing season.
- Larval stages should be targeted by products showing systemicity or good translaminar or locally systemic activity. This include Cyromazine, Abamectin, Cyantraniliprole, Chlorantraniliprole, Spinetoram, Spirotetramat (use for light infestations – suppression only).
- Adult flies should be targeted by products with good residual and contact activity, including actives such as Abamectin, Cyantraniliprole, Chlorantraniliprole, Spinetoram.
- When applying insecticides to this pest, key considerations should be given to:
- Apply insecticides only when needed based on economic damage thresholds (tbd);
- Use insecticides appropriate to the insect growth stage, eg. systemic and translaminar acting products are required for larval stages, and contact and residual activity is key for adults.
- Use a medium spray quality to ensure sufficient droplets cover the spray target to ensure the larvae ingest a lethal dose of insecticide;
- Use a well calibrated, functioning boom spray with appropriate water rate for the target crop to ensure optimum spray coverage;
- Use the recommended insecticide rates as stipulated on the relevant APVMA Emergency Use Permit;
- Inspect the performance of the insecticide 3-4 days after application. Always document the effectiveness of each insecticide application and never re-spray a failure with an insecticide with the same mode of action. Inform the permit holder, APVMA and agronomist of any spray failures.
- Resistance risk is increased where known incidences have been recorded internationally in Liriomyza species. This includes the following MoA groups: Carbamates (Group 1A); Cyclodienes/Organochlorines (Group 2A), Organophosphates (Group 1B); Pyrethroids (Group 3); Spinosyns (Group 5), Abamectin (Group 6) and Cyromazine (Group 17).
- When rotating between modes of action, take into account the resistance management strategies for other pests which may be present.
- When using selected insecticides targeting the serpentine leafminer, the following resistance management strategy guidelines should be implemented:
- If the label allows and it is required for sustained pest management, use two sequential applications of any one Mode of Action (MOA) insecticide to span a single generation of Serpentine leafminer (~13-26 days at 20-30oC) and then rotate to a different MOA insecticide;
- Do not treat successive generations with products of the same MOA;
- The total exposure period of any one MOA insecticide applied throughout the crop cycle (from seedling to harvest) should not exceed 50% of the crop cycle;
- Abide by the individual label recommendation for maximum number of allowable applications per crop per season;
- Abide by individual label recommendation for the minimum reapplication interval and always use the full recommended label rates;
- Where possible, an Area Wide Management strategy should be adopted where the same MOA insecticides are used by all growers in the same time period; and
- As the industry learns more about how to manage this pest, this Strategy may be updated and regional-specific strategies may be developed. Check the CropLife Resistance Management website to ensure you are following the most up to date serpentine leafminer strategy.
List of active constituents approved for use under permits by the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) as of January 2022
|
Group*
|
Chemical sub-group
|
Example chemical (as per permit, and named crops) **
|
| 1B |
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors |
Dimethoate (pulses & ornamental shrubs and trees) |
| 4A |
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (NaChR) competitive modulators (Neonicotinoids) |
Thiamethoxam + Chlorantraniliprole (Nursery stock – non-food) |
| 5 |
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) allosteric modulators – Site I (Spinosyns) |
Spinetoram (brassica vegetables (head and leafy), cucurbits, culinary herbs, fruiting vegetables, leafy vegetables, root and tuber vegetables, stalk and stem vegetables, nursery stock (non-food), fruiting plants (non-bearing), cut flower, ornamentals, snow peas, sugar snap peas and green beans)
Spinosad (leafy brassica , cucurbits, culinary herbs, fruiting vegetables, leafy vegetables, root and tuber vegetables, stalk and stem vegetables, ornamentals.) |
| 6 |
Glutamate-gated chloride channel (GluCl) allosteric modulators |
Abamectin (cucurbits and other fruiting vegetables (excluding mushroom and corn), leafy vegetables, legume vegetables, root and tuber vegetables, bulb vegetables, head cabbages, celery and rhubarb),
Chlorantraniliprole + abamectin, Emamectin (nursery stock (non-food), fruiting plants (non-bearing) cut flower and ornamentals)
Emamectin (suppression only in Brassica Vegetables) |
| 15 |
Inhibitors of chitin biosynthesis affecting
CHS1 (Benzoylureas) |
Diflubenzuron (nursery stock (non- food and non-bearing), cut flowers, ornamentals) |
| 17 |
Moulting disruptors, Dipteran. |
Cyromazine (broccoli, fruiting veg – cucurbits and others (excluding mushroom and corn), head lettuce, legume vegetables, root and tuber vegetables, stalk and stem vegetables, nursery stock (non-food), fruiting plants (non-bearing), cut flower, ornamentals) |
| 22A |
Voltage-dependent sodium channel blockers (Oxadiazines) |
Indoxacarb (nursery stock (non-food), fruiting plants (non-bearing), cut flower, ornamentals) |
| 23 |
Inhibitors of COA Carboxylase |
Spirotetramat (suppression of snow peas, sugar snap peas, lettuce (head and leafy), parsley, green beans, celery, rhubarb, eggplant, capsicum, chilies, tomatoes. |
| 28 |
Ryanodine receptor modulators (Diamides) |
Chlorantraniliprole (Spinach and Silverbeet, nursery stock (non-food), fruiting plants (non-bearing), cut flower, ornamentals)
Chlorantraniliprole + Thiamethoxam (brassica leafy vegetable and leafy vegetables – seedlings)
Chlorantraniliprole + Abamectin (nursery stock (non-food), fruiting plants (non-bearing), cut flower, ornamentals)
Cyantraniliprole (bulb vegetables, fruiting vegetables, potatoes, celery, nursery stock (non-food), fruiting plants (non-bearing), cut flower, ornamentals)
Cyclaniliprole (nursery stock (non-food), fruiting plants (non-bearing), cut flower, ornamentals) |
| UN |
Unknown |
Azadirachtin (nursery stock (non-food), fruiting plants (non-bearing), cut flower, ornamentals) |
*Refer: CropLife Australia Expert Committee on Insecticide Resistance Mode of Action Classification for Insecticides
**Refer to the APVMA’s PubCris website (https://portal.apvma.gov.au/permits) to ensure permit is still active
Notes:
- Life cycle prediction tool developed by Cesar: https://cesaraustralia.shinyapps.io/darabug2/
- Hort innovation guidance document: 1303CR2_Management-guide_FINAL_150620.pdf (ausveg.com.au)
- DPI factsheet: https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/leafminers/key/Polyphagous%20Agromyzid%20Leafminers/Media/Html/Liriomyza_huidobrensis.htm
- CABI datasheet, including information on natural enemies: https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/30956#67C668C3-A81D-40A2-8D80-1A04AF7490B4